A Multicultural Survey of the Influence of Childhood Environmental Experiences on Adult Sensitivities to Urban and Community Forests

• Abstract
• Introduction
• Literature Review
• Goal and Objectives
• Methodology
• Products
• Project Scope and Evaluation
• Literature Cited

ABSTRACT:

The goal of this project was to examine the relationship between childhood contact with nature and adult attitudes toward urban forests.  More than 80% of the U.S. population lives in urban areas, where there are few chances to interact with nature.  As the U.S. becomes more urbanized, more trees will be threatened to make room for development.  Will children raised in such stark surroundings fail to develop strong, positive responses to nature?  

A telephone survey of 2,004 adults in large metropolitan areas across the U.S. was conducted.  Participants were asked about their memories of their childhood experiences with nature and their current understanding and appreciation of urban trees.  Demographics, including multicultural background, were gathered. 

Overall, respondents of all ethnicities expressed positive attitudes toward trees in urban areas.  People appear to understand the diverse benefits trees provide.  Childhood participation in active and passive outdoor activities, including tree plantings and being raised near trees, appears to influence adult attitudes positively.

These results indicate that childhood experiences with nature have a strong influence on adult sensitivities to trees.  This information could be used to tailor children's environmental and gardening activities more effectively to engender appreciation for nearby nature in adult citizens.
 
 
 

INTRODUCTION:

E.O. Wilson's biophilia hypothesis asserts that humans have an innate affinity for the natural world, implying that our attraction for nature had significance for the survival of our early ancestors (Kellert, 1993). Others suggest that both positive (biophilic) and negative (biophobic) responses were important in early human development (Ulrich, 1993). Adults and children of various cultures consistently prefer the same types of scenes, such as those that are savannah-like or park-like, often containing water (Heerwagen and Orians, 1993; Kaplan and Kaplan, 1989; Lohr and Pearson-Mims, 1995). These are the unthreatening, natural settings that presumably provided major survival advantages for early humans during evolution. These environments also afforded less exposure to dangerous, or biophobic, properties (Ulrich, 1993).

If responses toward nature are indeed innate or imprinted, when in a person's life are these responses set and how long is the period for sensitization? For example, the onset of certain adult phobias, such as the fear of snakes, typically occurs during early childhood and appears to be cross-cultural (Ulrich, 1993). Are positive childhood experiences with nature critical for developing adult sensitivities to our environment? Do our early interactions and experiences with nature, whether positive or negative, influence our attitudes toward the urban forest as adults? 

Both learned and genetic influences appear to affect adult landscape preferences for Western and non-Western cultures (Ulrich, 1993). Preferences for natural settings differ between adults and children, and among ethnic groups (Balling and Falk, 1982; Berge and Lohr, 1994; Talbot and Kaplan, 1992). For example, the reasons people cite for using urban parks, and the features of these areas that they consider attractive, are affected by ethnicity and age (Taylor, 1992). Children's experiences with nature are influenced by numerous factors including parental attitudes, the surroundings where they are raised, and participation in children's gardening or tree planting programs. Are children that have positive or extensive experiences with nature more likely to understand and appreciate the values of the urban forest as adults? 
 
 

LITERATURE REVIEW:

By the year 2000, it is projected that more than 80 percent of the United States' population will live in urban areas. Natural systems in these areas, such as the urban forest, are under extreme pressure to maintain basic ecological functions, including water and air purification, upon which human existence depends (USDA, 1996). Community involvement is critical for the continued vitality of the urban forest (USDA, 1996). To encourage and ensure this involvement, an understanding of what promotes shared stewardship as well as different cultural perspectives regarding trees is needed (Sommer et al., 1994a). It is not clear that the concept of the urban forest and its benefits are fully understood and recognized by the public (Hull, 1992; Steigler, 1990). If the goals of urban and community forestry programs are to be realized, it is imperative that we begin to understand the factors that affect adult sensitivities to urban and community forests.

Values and pro-environmental behavior. Recent research has begun to examine the role of values in promoting pro-environmental behavior (Karp, 1996). Factors valued highly by those likely to engage in pro-environmental behavior include "unity with nature," "a world of beauty," and "protecting the environment," whereas factors such as "social power" and "authority" are important for those unlikely to engage in such behaviors (Karp, 1996). Other research has examined the role of human values, assessed cross-culturally, in motivating people to enhance their own personal interests compared with the extent to which values motivate people to promote the welfare of others and of nature (Schwartz, 1992). People can also be motivated to engage in pro-environmental behavior by formal and informal sanctioning systems and market incentives (Axelrod and Lehman, 1993). 

Participation in urban forestry programs. What motivates adults to volunteer for urban forestry programs? The "deep values" that people have for the urban forest, namely, those that are aesthetic, emotional, or spiritual, are the most important reasons for voluntary participation in urban forestry programs (Westphal, 1992). The utilitarian benefits of urban trees, such as their ability to improve air quality, promote cooling, and increase property values, are much less important to these tree volunteers. Other researchers have reported similar findings ( Dwyer et al., 1991; Hull, 1992; Schroeder and Ruffolo, 1992). 

Research also is beginning to examine the social benefits of tree planting programs and identify factors that affect the success of these programs (Sommer et al., 1994a; Sommer et al., 1994b). Tree planting contributes to an enhanced sense of community, the empowerment of inner-city residents to improve their own neighborhoods, and the promotion of environmental responsibility and ethics (Dwyer et al., 1992). Clearly, adults who participate in such programs appear to value the urban forest. 

Children's experiences with nature. Educators have long realized the importance of experiential education for children. In particular, nature education and outdoor experiences help children gain a respect for living things, stimulate their curiosity, and provide them with meaningful life experiences that may influence adult responses to nature (Bullock, 1994). Research has shown that instruction in environmental education promotes positive attitudes toward the environment in elementary school children, and that these positive attitudes are retained during childhood (Jaus, 1984).

Trees play a major role in the lives of young people in both rural and urban environments (Berge and Lohr, 1994; Johnson and Monear, 1994). It is commonly believed that children who participate in tree planting programs develop a sense of ownership for these trees because they have invested their time and energy and, therefore, have a strong incentive to maintain the plants and assure their survival. Organizers of such programs hope that these children will have a sense of kinship and respect for the natural world when they are adults (Lewis, 1996). 

To what extent have the childhood experiences of adults influenced their sensitivities to urban and community forests? In one study examining adult memories of favorite childhood play experiences, outdoor play was remembered more often than indoor play, and play materials remembered most often included natural objects, such as rocks and leaves (Henninger, 1994). Can we make predictions about the attitudes of future generations toward the urban forest based on the experiences of children currently participating in tree planting programs? Are adults who have been actively involved with nature as children more likely to have positive attitudes toward the urban forest? 
 
 

GOAL AND OBJECTIVES:

Our goal is to examine the relationship between childhood contact with nature and adult attitudes towards the urban forest. We will survey participants regarding their childhood memories of the surroundings where they were raised and the places they vacationed or visited when growing up. They will be questioned particularly regarding early experiences with nature. Participants will also be surveyed regarding their current understanding and appreciation of urban and community forests. General demographics will be gathered. 

The specific objectives of this project are to:

1. establish correlations between people's memories of childhood contact with nature and their adult perceptions of the urban forest, and 

2. determine if significant differences in these correlations exist based on demographic variables, such as cultural or ethnic backgrounds. 

These observed correlations will be the basis for future studies to determine if there are actual cause-and-effect relationships.

If we understand these relationships, we can better understand the influence of childhood participation in urban and community forestry programs on the perspectives of those same children as adults. This information could allow us to tailor children's urban and community forestry activities more effectively to engender appreciation for the urban forest in our adult citizens. 
 
 

METHODOLOGY: 

A nationwide telephone survey will be conducted to assess childhood memories about contact with nature, adult attitudes toward urban forests, and general demographics. Potential survey questions will be developed by the SESRC, using input from the first two principal investigators, who have experience with urban and community forestry, public gardening programs, and environmental ethics issues. Questions will be pretested on a random sample of the general public to develop a final valid and reliable questionnaire (Converse and Presser, 1986; Sudman, 1976). We will adopt the nationally accepted total quality design method procedures (Dillman, 1978) for the development and implementation of this survey. The survey will be administered by the SESRC to obtain approximately 2,000 completed surveys from randomly selected people across the U.S. (Groves et al., 1988; Salant and Dillman, 1994). Correlations among people's childhood memories, adult sensitivities, and demographics will be examined.

The specific tasks to be completed include the following:

1. Conduct focus groups to identify questionnaire items and pretest sample questions.
2. Design a 20-minute telephone survey.
3. Obtain a random sample of households for the survey, perhaps stratified by region (geographic or by metropolitan area).
4. Complete telephone interviews with at least 2,000 respondents.
5. Create survey databases consisting of all survey responses. Document the survey databases, and prepare a written description of survey procedures and resulting sample dispositions. Information about the data quality and acquisition problems experienced will also be included.
6. Analyze results and prepare appropriate summary articles and presentations for communicating results.

Household Samples. The sample for this study will be drawn from a nationwide database of households with names and phone numbers listed in telephone directories and those with unlisted numbers as well. Approximately 35% of households nationwide have unlisted telephone numbers. To include unlisted households in this sample, we propose to use a dual frame sample for the survey, combining both random-digit dialing and listed samples. The proposed sample sizes for each group are sufficiently large to ensure a sample error no larger than plus or minus 7% for any group. The sample error for the entire study will be less than plus or minus 3%. The SESRC estimates that up to 25% of households selected for the survey may be unreachable during the survey period, or may refuse to participate in the interview. The SESRC will keep accurate records of the disposition of all sample cases in the survey, and will provide a final summary of the sample disposition for the entire survey.

Survey Implementation. The SESRC will hire experienced interviewers to conduct interviews. Additionally, all interviewers will be trained in proper interviewing and probing techniques, and in the correct use of the computer assisted telephone interview (CATI) system used to record the answers as they are received during the telephone interview. All interviewers will be given specific information about the survey and general information about conducting interviews. Interviewers will refer to this resource as needed during interviews. 

To ensure high response rates to the survey, interviewers are provided with techniques for encouraging respondent cooperation. We have budgeted for interviewers to make up to ten call attempts per telephone number, and to make up to ten call-backs on known household numbers. However, we will make additional call attempts if they are needed to achieve targeted response rates.

The SESRC will enter the final version of the questionnaire into a computer assisted telephone interview (CATI) program. The CATI questionnaire will be thoroughly tested prior to telephone interviewing to ensure accurate encoding of survey responses.

Data Validation Procedures. Three separate data validation steps will be conducted by the SESRC. The first data validation step occurs by the microcomputer software used for conducting telephone interviews. The second occurs at the data management step. The third validation step, occurring during data analysis, consists of checking the consistency of respondents' answers to objective and verifiable survey questions.

Data Analyses. Summary tables and charts of the answers to specific questions will be prepared, both for the overall results and for significant subgroups, based on demographic breakdowns. Standard computer-based statistical packages will be used to determine correlations among the responses about childhood memories of contact with nature and responses about adult perceptions of the urban forest. Interactions among these correlations and the demographic variables will form the basis for determining significant differences among subgroups.
 
 

PRODUCTS: 

Part of the value of this project comes from the raw data that can be used by other researchers to develop hypotheses and stimulate additional research. To promote this end, the data will not be copyrighted and will be provided for use by other researchers.

The SESRC will enter all questionnaire data into a machine readable format as a survey database on floppy disks. The data set can be provided in ASCII format, as a SAS data set, or as an SPSS data set. The SESRC will create a code book and any necessary instructions for accessing the database. The SESRC will also provide a model SAS (Statistical Analysis System) program for accessing the database. All open-ended comments to questions in the interview will be available as a text file that can be imported into any word processing software. A brief report on the response rates achieved for each survey and the principal findings according to the objectives of the survey will be provided. Copies of all survey materials and the computer assisted telephone interview (CATI) screens can be provided as well. 

Data summaries and their implications will be communicated to national audiences through presentations at national meetings and articles submitted to appropriate journals, such as the Journal of Arboriculture, Environment and Behavior, and Urban Forests magazine. Reprints of these articles will be provided to the National Urban and Community Forestry Advisory Council. Since the survey population is both culturally and geographically diverse, the results of this survey will be applicable to numerous audiences throughout the U.S., and will be communicated in different formats.
 
 

PROJECT SCOPE AND EVALUATION:

The target audience for this survey is the general public in the U.S. It is culturally diverse and represents various levels of childhood contact with nature. The SESRC will obtain a survey sample that is representative of all ethnic and cultural groups in the U.S. Through computer-assisted telephone interviews, the public's childhood experiences with nature, adult perceptions of urban forests, and demographic backgrounds will be addressed. By understanding the relationships among the measured variables, we propose to make predictions regarding the value of childhood exposure to nature. 

The SESRC has extensive experience in conducting surveys of the public. Information regarding sampling procedures, response rates, and validity will be provided. The strength of correlations among the areas surveyed represents the best criterion for evaluating our hypotheses. These data will be used to determine the importance of childhood experiences with nature and to make predictions regarding critical ages for these experiences to have the greatest impact on adult attitudes toward the urban forest. 

The information gained from this survey can be applied in educational strategies to help increase the efficiency of programs designed to teach children about trees, gardening, and nature. This knowledge will also generally contribute to the understanding of the public's knowledge of the benefits of developing and maintaining urban and community forests. 
 
 

LITERATURE CITED:

Axelrod, L.J. and D.R. Lehman. 1993. Responding to environmental concerns: What factors guide individual action? J. Env. Psychol. 13:149-159.

Balling, J.D. and J.H. Falk. 1982. Development of visual preference for natural environments. Env. and Behavior 14:5-28.

Berge, B. and V. I. Lohr. 1994. Landscape preferences and stress responses of ethnically diverse adolescents, p. 101-113. In: M. Francis, P. Lindsey, and J. S. Rice (eds.). The healing dimensions of people-plant relations: Proceedings of a research symposium. Univ. of CA, Davis, CA.

Bullock, J.R. 1994. Helping children value and appreciate nature. Day Care and Early Educ. 21:4-8. 

Converse, J.M. and S. Presser. 1986. Survey questions: Hand crafting the standardized questionnaire. Sage University Paper series on Quantitative Applications in the Social Sciences, 07-063. Sage, Beverly Hills, CA.

Dillman, D.A. 1978. Mail and telephone surveys: The total design method. Wiley, New York, NY. 

Dwyer, J.F., E.G. McPherson, H.W. Schroeder, and R.A. Rowntree. 1992. Assessing the benefits and costs of the urban forest. J. Arbor. 18:227-234. 

Dwyer, J., H. Schroeder, and P. Gobster. 1991. The significance of urban trees and forests: Towards a deeper understanding of values. J. Arbor. 17:276-284.

Groves, R.M., P.B. Biemer, L.E. Lyberg, J.T. Massey, W.L. Nicholls, and J. Waksberg (eds.). 1988. Telephone survey methodology. Wiley, New York, NY.

Heerwagen, J.H. and G.H. Orians. 1993. Humans, habitats, and aesthetics, p. 138-172. In: S.R. Kellert and E.O. Wilson (eds.). The biophilia hypothesis. Island Press, Washington, D.C. 

Henninger, M.L. 1994. Adult perceptions of favorite childhood play experiences. Early Child Dev. and Care 99:23-30.

Hull, R.B.. 1992. How the public values urban forests. J. Arbor. 18:98-101.

Jaus, H.H. 1984. The development and retention of environmental attitudes in elementary school children. J. Env. Educ. 15:33-36.

Johnson, G.R. and J. Monear. 1994. A child's view of the urban forest. J. Arbor. 20:336-340.

Kaplan, R. and S. Kaplan. 1989. The experience of nature: a psychological perspective. Cambridge University Press, New York.

Karp, D.G. 1996. Values and their effect on pro-environmental behavior. Env. and Behavior 28:111-133.

Kellert, S.R. 1993. The biological basis for human values of nature, p. 42-69. In: S.R. Kellert and E.O. Wilson (eds.). The biophilia hypothesis. Island Press, Washington, D.C.

Lewis, C.A. 1996. Participation with green nature: gardening, p. 49-73. In: Green nature/human nature: the meaning of plants in our lives. Univ. Of Illinois Press, Urbana, Ill.

Lohr, V.I. and L.H. Bummer. 1992. Assessing and influencing attitudes toward water-conserving landscapes. HortTechnology 2:253-256. 

Lohr, V. I. and C. H. Pearson-Mims.  1997.  The influence of tree form on human health and well-being, p. 98-101.  IN:  P. Williams and J. M. Zajicek (eds.)  People-plant interactions in urban areas:  Proceedings of a research and education symposium.  Dept. of Hort. Sci., Texas A&M Univ., College Station, TX.

Lohr, V.I., C.H. Pearson-Mims, and G.K. Goodwin. 1996. Interior plants may improve worker productivity and reduce stress in a windowless environment. J. Env. Hort. 14(2):97-100.

Salant, P. and D.A. Dillman. 1994. How to conduct your own survey. Wiley, New York, NY. 

Schroeder, H.W. and S.R. Ruffolo. 1992. Householders' evaluations of street trees in suburban Chicago, p. 19-23. In: P.H. Gobster (ed.). Managing Urban and High-Use Recreation Settings: Proc. 4th N. Amer. Symp. on Soc. and Res. Mgt., 17-20 May 1992. USDA Forest Service, Chicago.

Schwartz, S.H. 1992. Universals in the content and structure of values: theoretical advances and empirical tests in 20 countries. Adv. in Exp. Social Psychol. 25:1-65.

Sommer, R. F. Learey, J. Summit, and M. Tirrell. 1994a. The social benefits of resident involvement in tree planting. J. Arbor. 20: 170-175.

Sommer, R., F. Learey, J. Summit, and M. Tirrell. 1994b. Social benefits of resident involvement in tree planting: comparison with developer-planted trees. J. Arbor. 20:323-328.

Steigler, J.H. 1990. Public perceptions of the urban forest, p. 40-45. In: P.D. Rodbell (ed.). Make Our Cities Safe for Trees: Proc. 4th Urban For. Conf. Amer. For. Assoc., Washington, DC.

Sudman, S. 1976. Applied sampling. Academic Press, San Diego, CA.

Talbot, J.F. and R. Kaplan. 1992. Preferences for nearby natural settings: ethnic and age variations, p. 93-97. In: P.H. Gobster (ed.). Managing Urban and High-Use Recreation Settings: Proc. 4th N. Amer. Symp. on Soc. and Res. Mgt. USDA Forest Service, Chicago.

Taylor, D. 1992. Urban park use: Race, ancestry, and gender, p. 82-86. In: P.H. Gobster (ed.). Managing Urban and High-Use Recreation Settings: Proc. 4th N. Amer. Symp. on Soc. and Res. Mgt., 17-20 May 1992. USDA Forest Service, Chicago.

Ulrich, R.S. 1993. Biophilia, biophobia, and natural landscapes, p. 73-137. In: S.R. Kellert and E.O. Wilson (eds.). The biophilia hypothesis. Island Press, Washington, D.C.

U.S. Dept. of Agriculture, Forest Service. July, 1996. Urban and community forestry on course into the future: vital communities through healthy ecosystems- a strategic direction. 

Westphal, L.M. 1992. Why trees? Urban forestry volunteers values and motivations, p. 19-23. In: P.H. Gobster (ed.). Managing Urban and High-Use Recreation Settings: Proc. 4th N. Amer. Symp. on Soc. and Res. Mgt., 17-20 May 1992. USDA Forest Service, Chicago.