Introduction
This paper addresses the systematic application of Information Technologies (IT) to the management of the three types of educational leadership described in Senge's chapter: Leading learning organizations: The bold, the powerful and the invisible in Leader of the Future (edited by Hesselbein, Goldsmite, & Beckhard, 1996). In that chapter, Senge describes three types of leader: the executive leader, working above the workers (Deans, Provosts, and Superintendents); the line leader, working with the workers (Chairs, and Principals); and the network leader, (untitled worker/peers who demonstrate leadership from within organizations) working among and between everyone in an organization. The application of IT to these different leaders can benefit these leaders and organizations. This paper combines the theoretical elements of leadership and technology with empirical evidence derived from the management of a Virtual University initiative conducted at a large land-grant university in the Pacific Northwest.
This paper will articulate the premises of IT and its ability to aid educational leaders, describe three types of IT enhanced leadership and the technological support best suited to each, and then forward a hypothesis, called Virtual Leadership which outlines the use of IT in leadership.
The Premises
In promoting or offering a hypothesis about IT and leadership, the assumptions, and evidence supporting the hypothesis must be described. Here, I will articulate the premises describing the utility, or the set of assumptions about the utility, of IT in aiding leaders and their work. This is an important step in light of recent evidence that, just because it is technologically enhanced, it may not be better, or more efficient. It is important to understand that this is not a blanket endorsement of IT and its ability to help workers. It is a specific claim surrounding the application of IT toward specific ends and in specific situations in aid of leaders and leadership activity.
Premise One: Information Technology (IT) can positively change the mechanisms of leadership in educational systems.
We should first begin with a description of what IT means. In this context IT most often refers to three main features of the technological environment: (1) Computers, and the networks they are hooked to, as telecomputing communication systems, (2) computers as groupware and groupwork aids, lastly and least (3) computers as personal productivity aids. The extent to which each of these roles is used by different levels of leaders is variable. There are some patterns of use but no firm trends or rule bound uses to which each type of leader uses these technologies.
In 1, the role of telecomputing is obvious within any framework of leadership. Whether it is using the Internet or an Intranet with regards to Gardner's storytelling (Gardner, 1995) or Burns' transformational leadership (Burns, 1978), IT and its use as a communication system clearly has great positive potential. Whether through an Intranet, or over the globe's Internet, the power of reaching millions of people quickly and sharing data or software is clear. (Recently, Microsoft shipped a million copies of its browser over the World Wide Web (WWW) in one day. More than a statement about marketing and delivery mechanisms, this is clear evidence that a coordinated set of messages combined with a leadership strategy designed to reach people can move huge amounts of information (in this case software) quickly and efficiently. For perspective, compare this to the communication opportunity posed by a popular sports event such as the Superbowl, with an estimated 20-30 million viewers, who are assumed to see 30% of the commercials, and of whom about 20% remember them. In that scenario, less than 2 million viewers get the message, and fewer yet take actions based on the information presented in this medium. This set of diminishing returns of broadcasting and consumerism compared with the focused application of narrowcasting (Lick, 1965), to distribute products and services highlights an efficiency of message and delivery. In the Microsoft example, few extraneous messages are received, little extraneous effort is applied to people outside the needs or influence of specific messages, and there is still great potential for mass distribution, provided of course the deliverable is online.) During the recent presidential campaign Web sites were a strategic element of each campaign. This is a clear message about the potential of the leader's use of IT for telecommunications.
In 2, the use of IT a coordinator of groupwork is evidenced by several researchers as we begin to see the formation of world wide virtual teams (Geber, 1995). As leaders begin to use IT for coordinating groupwork it is clear that vast potential for distributed teamwork exists. As Premise One is formulated we need to see only evidence for the positive possibilities. Several are already evident. (Johnson, 1992; Seagren, Watwood, & Barker, 1996; and Vaisman, 1995). It may be here that IT excels at assisting leaders at all ranks.
In 3 (purposely placed last), is personal productivity. The capacity of IT to assist leaders in this capacity exists but is limited in its impact of followers. It cannot be omitted however, because of the obvious impact on followers of all types if IT is not part of a leader's perceived repertoire of techniques. As a role model, leaders stance on the use of IT in personal productivity modes should be clear and obvious.
In summary, Premise One states that IT may advantageously change the patterns, modes, or arrangements of a leaders work (Sproull & Kiesler, 1991). At a fundamental level, the deep mechanisms of leaders' work may changed by It's presence on the educational canvas.
Premise Two: Different uses of IT are appropriate for different types of leaders.
The correct placement of leaders and the IT applications they deploy are critical to the messages they promote as leaders and the work they do in relation to the organization. The day to day maintenance of a listserve serving the organizations operational needs might not be a suitable use of an executive leader's time. On the other hand an executive leader could easily and reasonable facilitate a listserve of peer executive leaders; in this capacity this person would be working as a network leader. The creation and management of a generative problem solving/strategy generation Web site might not be an appropriate network leader function; this work might be seen as disruptive rather than constructive. These exemplify the negative possibilities. Several positive examples exist and will be described in detail a following section called Development and Description. There, IT uses of leaders of different types will be described and contrasted.
Premise Three: While the conscious use of specific IT strategies benefits different types of leader in different ways, the patterns of use can be defined, described and facilitated. The systematic application of IT to leadership strategies in these three different arenas, constitutes a new hypothesis (to be developed into a theory) of leadership.
Here a brief overview of the hypothesis that will be developed in the third section, IT Leadership Hypothesis (A theory of IT facilitated leadership) will be offered in the form of a model building on Senge's three types of leadership.
FIGURE ONE: Leadership Types and Integrated IT Uses.
|
IT Use\ Types |
Executive |
Line |
Network |
|
Typical Needs |
Data collection, problem solving, creative vision setting (strategic planning) and intra-agency vision dissemination, & inter-agency communication, |
Interactive consensus-building, group coordination, & traditional intra-agency communication |
Local, supportive diverse goal activities & grass-roots idea generation |
|
Typical IT Used |
Data collection systems (eDelphi™, anonymous email suggestion boxes and online surveys), Groupware (Lotus Notes, Sequel shared document environments), & Internet based communication systems. |
Program and exec vision description through WWW "broadcast", shared document collection and coordination, and group calendering as well as review of online worker products. |
Project based WWW page coordination, informal communication system maintenance, team coordination through "Project home pages" and revisable drafts and reports |
Development and Description of IT use
Executive Leaders
Technological management of different workers, let alone different types of leaders, is a challenge. Some simple technological solutions exist for managing the complex communication strategies of executive leaders: emailing lists, anonymous suggestion emailboxes, technological eDelphi™ techniques as well as typical listserves. I will explore these and their use in relation to the executive leader, focusing on creating structures (data gathering and decision making systems, strategic planning procedures and local area broadcast techniques) aimed at aiding communication and discussion making.
If we agree that key executive leaders' (such as Deans, Provosts, and Superintendents) roles include:
then it is clear that IT can provide several specific types of aid for a leader engaged in these activities. Several examples of successful use of these techniques aimed at these uses exists.
Data Collection. Data collection for executive leaders can be problematic. Opinions summoned from followers are subject to yesism (workers agreeing too soon with perceived management positions), groupthink (opinions reflecting group norms rather than personal stances or data derived positions) and simple recalcitrance. Extracting useful opinions about the work followers do or opinions they have can be facilitated successfully by several types of IT. Internet based automated survey techniques are useful when inventorying skills, or equipment. Internet deployed eDelphi™ techniques can be important agenda setting tools. Focus groups convened on listserves or as threaded discussions can provide insights to the prevailing attitudes of a faculty as well as garner useful input about recasting executive agendas.
Group problem solving. Shared document environments can provide useful settings for the generation and refinement of organizational stances. Often the meeting time used to collect ideas and develop strategies is inadequate, and often viable strategies such as shared document creation or cycled editing are useful alternatives to realtime meetings. There are several commercial programs that are designed to collect ideas and coordinate projects. Generative approaches to the use of computer models and simulations can provide valuable stimulus to groups examining problems. In situations where groups and committees are created to solve problems, specific software programs, Internet pages and groupware are valuable aids in a leaders attempt to facilitate and guide a team working on a specific problem solving task.
Vision setting (Strategic planning). IT's use in strategic plan could incorporate several of the techniques described above. IT aided focus groups, Internet deployed surveys, and carefully targeted emailings could create the foundation of data collection for any strategic planning project. The creation of organizational mailing lists and the project or issue specific listserves could become critical features of any strategic initiative.
Intra-agency vision dissemination. After strategic planning or in relation to ongoing changing organizational position or stances, intra organizational communications through WWW page postings, or targeted emailings should form the basis of ongoing use of IT for critical communications. Without direct paper-less initiatives, IT can still become an accountable and reliable form of communication. In time when faculties snailmail boxes are cluttered with junkmail and often (occasionally) unvisited or at least unpurged, email has a vastly higher reliability in many settings. As receipt systems are incorporated into email systems, it becomes harder and harder for faculty and students to claim they didn't get the memo. This email use, coupled with a Web presence that is timely and critical to the intra organizational operations, can form a stable and reliable form of communications infrastructure.
Inter-agency communication. An executive leaders work is more often inter-agency than intra-agency. One of the very few, cross agency and cross platform IT solutions is the WWW. Often in order to coordinate a inter agency cooperation the Internet is a simple way to begin shared document interaction. Partnerships are easier to start and maintain as documents are served at common sites. Progress and announcements are easily shared when the interagency group has a shared Internet "home".
These solutions are brief glimpses into the opportunities of IT and its application to aiding the executive leaders goals. In no case are these untried ideas or principles. In my experience these are viable applications. The extent to which these techniques work depends often of organizational expectations and leader's consistency of application and vision. In settings where email and Internet are not directly assumed parts of the organizational expectations, these IT based solutions may not be profitable. But even in these less than successful IT applications, there are often hints that behavior and organizational expectations are shifting to incorporate and expect participants to engage in these IT uses as followers. As that happens the executive leaders will see that their use of IT is easier and more profitable.
Line Leaders
For managing the tasks of line leaders a more generative set of technological solutions exists. Group-shared collaborative document generation systems, Web based form-processed Webpage generation and locally hosted Web Centers form the foundation of systems that enhance the line leader's effectiveness and productivity. While line leaders tasks serve a set of clients they in turn inform the practices, management and decision making of their executives. In this way, with the correct systems, they lead the organization into new techniques and strategies. The systemic administration of technologies that aid this type of leader are critical to educational organizations' successes.
If we agree that key line leaders' (such as Chairs, and Principals) roles include:
then it is clear that IT can provide several specific types of aid for a leader engaged in these activities. The following are some examples of successful applications of IT toward these issues.
Interactive consensus-building. The development and maintenance of WWW Homepages depicting the mission of organizational subunits has been an impressive tool in several consensus building processes. Without the use of specialized software, simply the online presence of documents representing units work and mission as well as documents describing specific initiatives seems to galvanize groups into a discussion of their shared face. Beyond the general aid that online documents can provide toward consensus building, there are several commercially available IT techniques that can foster interactive consensus building throughout the development of shared documents (via Lotus Notes, or across a Sequel server).
Group coordination. The simple coordination of shared documents through regular postings on the Internet makes these updates available to all involved workers, any time and from anywhere. Group calendering through WebEvent (shareware) or MeetingMaker™ are also important techniques for managing committees or teams.
Traditional intra-agency communication. The traditional intra-agency communication of yearly reports, or committee updates or budget reviews can be posted on the Internet (limited addressing on the server limits the document distribution to local participants if necessary) for ease and speed. Often in meetings (convened in rooms with browswers) brief updates can be accomplished by a brief visit to an up-to-date online document. The rapid inspection of figures, graphs of readings of short narratives can provide critical and timely updates in cross organizational communications.
Network Leaders
The technological and social systems used to enhance the leadership capacity of network leaders is complex. The systems supporting the effectiveness of these leaders is typical very personal/social but there are trends in shifting to technologically enhanced social structures of network leaders. Managing these technological structures to aid network leaders is the most challenging of the proposed formal structures, because by their very nature they defy formalizing. Despite that caveat, there are tips and approaches that work well to enhance the effectiveness of this type of leader.
If we agree that key network leaders' (such as untitled worker/peers who demonstrate leadership from within organizations) roles include:
then it is clear that IT can provide several specific types of aid for a leader engaged in these activities.
Again here the use of email, Internet pages and listserves can provide support for various initiatives (specific goal activity, informal communication and grassroots idea generation) of a network leader. The formal use of email lists by a network leader can often produce large swings in opinion and knowledge. Often the informal relationships that emerge to identify or facilitate an internal network leader are IT related. Often we are faced with an executive decision for which we must turn to and rely on a network leader. Often there is embedded in our organizations an expert who is often more directly reachable by IT methods than by traditional face to face methods. Conversely, the network leader often prefers, through tradition or experience, to address others or groups via IT.
This is in no way an exhaustive list or a detailed description of the specifics of the formal structures that support these three types of leaders. These views are overviews and brief descriptions of the types of formal structures that have been seen to work well in some specific settings.
IT Leadership hypothesis. (A theory of IT facilitated leadership)
This is an attempt at a brief formal description of the features of a IT enhanced theory of leadership. It builds on the construction of three types of leadership described by Senge (1996) (described earlier) and incorporates the six features of Gardner's (1995) descriptions of leaders, combined with the spectrum of IT use (Brown, 1996) and it's influences on characteristics of leaders.
Gardner's six features of leadership are Story, Audience, Organization, Embodiment, Indirect versus Direct modes, and Expertise. Story & Audience and are features of a leaders sphere of influence (Story generally only applies to executive leaders in this construction). These tree feature apply to network, line and executive leaders to differing degrees. Story has very little application to line or network leaders. Organization, Embodiment, Direct and Indirect modes, and Expertise are features common to all types of leader. Embodiment is the degree to which the leader is consistent and is identified with the messages they portray. Direct and indirect modes of leadership describe the extent to which a leaders influence is within his or her area of expertise. For example Dr. Martin Luther King's influence was through his civic activism. His original area of leadership was church related, yet his major influence on America was not through his original organizational constituency, therefore his leadership path was indirect. Einstein and Feynman are examples of leaders who's influence was also indirect. Statesmen and politicians are typically viewed as direct leaders in that their chosen path is associated with their influences. (Jimmy Carter holds a Ph. D. in atomic physics and did not gain influence indirectly through his expertise in physics, thus his was direct leadership, while Ronald Regan might be described as having come indirectly to power through proficiency in acting thus his leadership might have been described as indirect.) Due to this distinction I equate the elements of Expertise with Indirect leaders while I equate the element of Organization with Direct leaders. (This is an oversimplification.)
Originally proposed as a description of instructional uses of IT, the PIG modes described by Brown (1996) outlines escalating uses of as three points of use along a continuum: Presentation, Interaction, and Generation--or PIG. The Presentational use of IT use of the World Wide Web as a broad or narrowcast medium. Presentation uses include direct email and top down shared document environments. Interactive use of IT includes prepared WWW interactive forms, shared document environments as well as conventional email use. Interactive forms if IT use are more than simple data collection or forms submission. Interactive IT uses include creation and production of working documents, mission statements and project outcomes or solutions. Closely related to Interaction, IT use that generates ideas, products or solutions is Generative. Generative use if IT includes collaborate shared document systems applied toward problem solving, or interactive decision making systems.
The following matrix outlines the relationships between different types of leaders, their use of or attention to, Gardner's six features of leadership (in italics), and the correlating levels or relative importance of the different types of IT use (P, I , or G).
FIGURE TWO: Overview of IT Leadership Hypothesis and the predominate use of IT types across the PIG Continuum (P = Presentational IT use, I = Interactive IT use, and G = Generative IT use.)
|
Leaders |
Executive |
Line |
Network |
|
Indirect/Expertise |
G with minor I |
I |
P with minor I |
|
Direct/ Organization |
G & P for Inter-Agency "Story") |
I & G |
P through G |
|
Features |
P with Audience& Embodiment through P |
I with Audience& Embodiment through I |
G with Audience& Embodiment through G |
I offer this model in the same spirit as Gardner in his work Leading Minds (1995, p 297). He says, "I fully expect that studies of other leaders - direct or indirect, or a Monnet-like amalgam of these two species - will undermine certain generalizations and give rise to many others. Thus scholarship advances. Rather than fearing such refutations or modifications, I welcome them."
Offer my outline of the interaction between types of leaders, IT uses and six features of leadership as a theoretical framework for exploring the complex interaction of IT and leadership. I offer this paper, not as an answer but as a framework for asking a question: a question about leadership in a time when the symbiosis between man and IT is becoming more and more evident.
Acknowledgment
I would like to thank Asymetrix, Boeing and Microsoft and acknowledge their gifts of software and funding, which in part supports the efforts of Virtual Washington State University. With generous corporate partners such these, recognizing their stake in higher education, the future of public higher education institutions seems to be on firmer grounds.
References
Brown, G. (1996). Digesting the PIG: Implementing and assessing instructional technologies. Curriculum in Context, 23(1), 18-21.
Burns, J. (1978) Leadership. New York: Harper Torchbooks.
Gardner, H. (1995). Leading minds. New York: Basic Books.
Geber, B. (1995). Virtual Teams. Training 32, 36-40.
Johnson, R. (1992). Computer enhanced teamwork. In Robert P. Bostrun, Richard T. Watson, and Susan T. Kinney (Eds.), Computer Augmented Teamwork. New York: Van Nostrand.
Seagren, A., Watwood, B., & Barker, L. (1996). Using the computer to deliver global graduate education. Paper to be presented at the 1996 Pan-Pacific Conference XIII, May 29-June 1, 1996.
Senge, P. (1996). Leading learning organizations: The bold, the powerful and the invisible. In Leader of the Future, F. Hesselbein, M. Goldsmite, and R. Beckhard (Eds). San Francisco: Jossey Bass.
Senge, P., Kleiner, A., Roberts, C., Ross, R., & Smith, B., (1994). The Fifth discipline fieldbook. New York: Currency Doubleday.
Sproull, L., & Kiesler, S. (1991). Connections: New ways of working in the networked organization. Cambridge: The MIT Press.
Vaisman, I. I. (1995). Virtual communities at interdisciplinary boundaries. In Hunter, L. & Klein, T, (Eds.), Pacific Symposium on Biocomputing '96 , (pp 756-757). Singapore: World Scientific.
Kevin C. Facemyer is the Director of Virtual Washington State University, Office of the Provost, Washington State University & a Lecturer in the Virtual Professional Development School, College of Education, Washington State University, Pullman, WA 99164-1046. (509) 335-8282. KCFacemyer@wsu.edu