Asoka (272-232) |
Of the great conquering kings of the Maurya
Empire, the only one we know much about is Asoka, for it is in the
reign of Asoka that the first samples of Indian writing since the fall
of Harappa appear. Asoka kept careful records of his edicts, so we
have an excellent source for the history of his reign.
He seems to have been forged from the same mold as
his illustrious fathers. Once he rose to the throne, he began an
aggressive campaign to conquer the remainder of the subcontinent. The
last major regions yet to be conquered were the Dravidian regions in
the far south and the Kalinga in North India.
The conquest of Kalinga, which extended Mauryan rule
to its farthest boundaries, seems to have been a tremendous shock to
Asoka. War and conquest are always bloody and cruel, and the
experience of massive homicide is often an experience that shakes
people to their very souls. Asoka was so troubled by the conquest that
he underwent a religious conversion. In the latter years of the
Brahmanic period, several religious movements arose in reaction to the
power and abuse of power by the Brahmans. The most significant of
these religious reactions was Buddhism, which is discussed in
more detail in the chapters on the religious history of ancient India.
Buddhism was really much less of a religion and more of a
philosophy--or, better yet, a philosophical therapy. Its founder,
Siddhartha Guatama, the "Buddha," or "Awakened One," was the son of a
noble who, when he first encountered death and sickness, resolved to
find a way to end human suffering. After years of struggle and
meditation, he "awakened" to the truth of things: that all human
suffering is caused by human desire and that human desire can be
quenched when one understands the impermanence of all things,
including the self. Unlike Brahmanism, Buddhism eschews elaborate
rituals and magic; unlike the Rig Veda, Buddhism advocates a
non-striving, non-coercive and meditative life.
The Buddhist way of life was a way out of Asoka's
crisis. He converted to Buddhism and strove to achieve the Buddhist
"middle way" between extremes. He became a vegetarian, renounced all
warfare, and attempted to build a state based on Buddhist principles.
First and foremost, the state would strive for nonviolence, or
ahimsa; in place of violence, the state would rule by "law" or
"right" (dharma).
Asoka, of course, could not put all of these reforms
into practice. He found that some level of violence and retribution
was necessary and declared as much. Although he made the laws less
harsh, they still involved physical punishment and, in some cases,
execution. Still, Asoka began a process of transformation in Indian
society. He represented first and foremost the possibility of
exemplifying religious idealism in a lived life rather than in a
merely formal position. Although he took the vows of Buddhism and even
joined the order, he chose to remain active in the real world and
exemplify his religion in his actions as king. He also demanded
religious toleration; under Asoka, all competing religious systems
were allowed to co-exist peacefully. The stunning ability of Indian
culture to tolerate competing religions throughout its history begins
with Asoka. Finally, although he could never really fully translate
Buddhist ideals into government, he began a process of cultural
transformation that would completely remake India. By the start of the
Gupta dynasty, the bulk of Indian society had become vegetarian and no
laws carried the death penalty.
His greatest achievement, however, was cultural. For
he was dedicated to his new religion and fervently patronized its
expansion. Under Asoka, Buddhist monks were sent in every compass
direction: to Burma, Tibet, Nepal, Persia, Mesopotamia, Syria, and
Israel. The eastern evangelical missions were extremely successful;
Buddhism spread very quickly from Nepal and Burma into Tibet and China
where it was fervidly embraced. The western missions, however, were
less successful. However, Buddhism left traces in Middle Eastern and
even European culture. For instance, one of the Catholic saints of the
Middle Ages and the Renaissance was Barlam, whose life is based on
that of Siddhartha Gautama, the Buddha. Not only is this Catholic
saint the Buddha, but one of the stories of Barlam is the conversion
of a cruel king, Iosaphat; this king, in many ways, corresponds to
Asoka, who is presented as intolerant and cruel before his conversion
in the Indian epic, Asokavadana. So there is tantalizing
evidence that Buddhism has had some influence on Christianity, though
we are not quite sure to what extent.
Needless to say, the spread of Buddhism under Asoka
greatly influenced the religious history of Asia. Asoka's conversion
also produced the first written literature in India; it was not Vedic
literature but the Buddhist scriptures that were first committed to
writing. Finally, Asoka's zeal in spreading Buddhism beyond the
borders of India ensured its survival, for when the Muslims defeated
the Hindus and took control of India, Buddhism is destroyed as an
organized religion in India.
Asoka was the last of the great kings of the Mauryan
dynasty. His successors were less energetic and capable; in 184 BC,
the last of the Mauryan kings was assassinated, and the first empire
of India came to an end. |
