By 1800 the voices raised in opposition to the international slave trade were becoming more common. These voices originated from Africa itself, as well as Europe and America. In 1526 the king of the Bakongo (in the Congo region) demanded of Portugal: "It is our will that in these kingdoms there should not be any trade in slaves, nor market for slaves." As early as 1571 France had banned the importation of slaves. Organized opposition to slavery came more slowly to England, which refused to recognize the status of slave in 1772.
There are many reasons for this opposition. Clearly, many observers throughout the world were appalled at the inhumane treatment of slaves. However, there were also economic forces at work. The Industrial Revolution was turning the old international economy on its head, replacing it with a new economy that emphasized manufacturing. Increasingly, Europeans and Americans looked to the rest of the world for two reasons: as a source of raw materials for their manufacturing enterprises and as markets for their finished products. Slavery, it seems, was becoming less relevant in this new economic environment. In fact, in Europe and America many were arguing that slaves should be returned to Africa, which had been devastated by the loss of its working population to the slave traders. These returned slaves would provide the foundation for new economic relationships--the labor to extract raw materials and the markets for finished products.
This new approach to Africa led to intense competition among the European nations. According to the economic beliefs of the time, wealth was a limited resource. If one nation gained in its acquisition of wealth, other nations must lose; it was a zero sum game. Therefore, as the nations jockeyed for position around the globe, they kept a careful eye on their competitors. If one nation gained colonial possessions, then the others would have to meet that challenge by gaining their own.
As the Europeans looked towards Africa for imperial expansion, the realized they would need to learn more about the continent and the people. Much of the contact between Europeans and Africans during the slave-trading period had taken place close to the coast. As Europeans considered establishing more extensive economic ties with Africa, they realized that the great interior of the African continent was by and large a mystery to them. Thus, European explorers set off for the interior. The most famous of these explorers, at least in Europe, was David Livingstone, the British explorer intent upon discovering the source of the Nile River. Explorers such as Livingstone paved the way for European expansion of power in Africa and ultimately for a colonial system that gave Europeans control of African affairs.
The Europeans established control in many diverse ways--sometimes by violent conquest, other times by less direct means. One method was based on the argument that Africans were in need of civilizing influences--and the Europeans were just the ones to provide this assistance. This argument developed from new "scientific" theories of the time that were based on Charles Darwin's biological principle of "survival of the fittest." Europeans and Americans argued that the white race was superior to all others and that its economic successes were attributable to racial characteristics. With the scientific "proof" on their side, they set out to dominate other, non-white peoples.
One means of civilizing Africa was through religious influence. Christian missionaries would spread the truth of their religion throughout a dark and ignorant continent. In fact, David Livingstone was just such a missionary, trained in medicine and religion, and convinced that his truth would liberate Africans from superstition and fear. In 1841 Livingstone arrived in South Africa and gradually made his way northward. He traveled under a banner that proclaimed civilization, Christianity, and commerce--the three ingredients necessary, he believed, for Africa to advance into the modern world. Livingstone abhorred slavery, and much of his work was focused on its abolition. Ironically, however, he laid the groundwork for another repressive system, colonialism.
Livingstone became famous for his exploits. In 1849 he "discovered" Lake Ngami and was recognized by the British Royal Geographic Society, which became a committed supporter of his expeditions. With the help of the Society, tales of his adventures in Africa provided compelling reading for Europeans. His exploration of the Zambezi River culminated in another major "discovery": Victoria Falls, named after Queen Victoria. Livingstone died in 1873, after a devastating sickness on another African expedition with the objective of discovering the source of the Nile. The members of the expedition claimed to have discovered his body kneeling in prayer at the side of his bed.
Jeff Sellen
