Akan, G. E., & Grilo, C. M. (1995). Sociocultural influences on eating attitudes and behaviors, body image, and psychological functioning: A comparison of African-American, Asian-American, and Caucasian college women. International Journal of Eating Disorders, 18(2), 181-187. The nature of variability in eating behaviors, attitudes, and body image was examined among African-American, Asian-American, and Caucasian. Low self- esteem and high public self-consciousness were associated with greater levels of problematic eating behaviors and attitudes and body dissatisfaction. Body image Eating attitudes Emotional adjustment Body esteem Barak, Y., Sirota, P., Tessler, M., & Achiron, A. (1994). Body esteem in Israeli university students. Israel Journal of Psychiatry and Related Sciences, 31(4), 292-295. The study administered the Body Esteem Scale (BES) to 203 female and 173 male Israeli undergraduates to establish the baseline ratings of BES in Israel. These ratings were compared with the ratings established for 633 female and 311 male US undergraduates. The results suggest that differences between US and Israeli subjects' body esteem may reflect aspects of social change related to a differing life-cycle in the two countries. Body esteem Body image Cross-cultural differences Female vs male college students Ben-Tovim, D. I., & Walker, M. K. (1991). Women's body attitudes: A review of measurement techniques. International Journal of Eating Disorders, 10(2), 155-167. A study that was designed to assess the range of women's attitudes toward their own bodies and to examine the application of available instruments to anorexic, bulimic, and other clinical populations. Instruments reviewed include the Body Cathexis Scale; Eating Disorders Inventory; Food, Fitness, and Looks Questionnaire; Body Shape Questionnaire; and Draw A Person. Body image Projective techniques Body esteem Booth, N. D. (1990). The relationship between height and self-esteem and the mediating effect of self-consciousness. Journal of Social Psychology, 130(5), 609-617. A study to investigate a curvilinear association between self-reported height and self- esteem in a US college-student sample, consisted of 143 male and 336 female students. They were administered the Personal Opinion Survey, which consisted of demographic information, the self-esteem Scale by M. Rosenberg, and the Imaginary Audience Scale by D. Elkind and R. Bowen. Results indicate a nonlinear relationship between height and self-esteem. Body height Self-esteem Self-perception Boyd, M. A. (1989). Living with overweight. Perspectives in Psychiatric Care, 25(3-4), 48-52. A study administered through 20 women to assess their beliefs and attitudes about overweight. The subjects redefined her negative experience into a more positive and realistic one that included recognizing additional sources of stress that contributed o low self-esteem and negative body image. Body awareness Obesity Body esteem Brenner, J. B., & Cunningham, J. G. (1992). Gender differences in eating attitudes, body concept, and self-esteem among models. Sex Roles, 27(7-8), 413-437. An investigation of eating attitudes, body concept, and self-esteem (SE) among 29 male and 30 female professional fashion models and 30 male and 30 female college students who served as controls. Overall results indicated that women displayed significantly more eating-disordered behavior and lower levels of body satisfaction and SE than men. The SE between male models (MMs) and male controls didn't differ, whereas the SE among women were different. However, both women controls and women models had similar levels of eating-disordered behavior. Eating attitudes & disorders Body concept Self-esteem Body image Chowdhary, U. (1993). Self-perceived somatypes and clothing-related behavior of older men and women. Perceptual and Motor Skills, 77(1), 307-322. An investigation of relationship between clothing- related behavior of older men and women and self-perceived somatotypes. Results indicate that body-type was significantly related to significance of apparel, self-esteem, and chronological age. No sex differences were found in perception of body-types. Clothing related behavior Sex & self-perceived somatotupes Body esteem Cohen-Tovee, E. M. (1993). Depressed mood and concern with weight and shape in normal young women. International Journal of Eating Disorders, 14(2), 223-227. The study investigated the possible role of depression in accentuating the concerns with weight and shape found in 2 groups of normal female population: a group of 17 undergraduates, who placed a high personal value on shape or weight, and a group of 16 undergraduates, who placed a low value on shape and weight. Body image Body weight Self-esteem Depression emotion Correia, F. (1995). Trying to fit the mold: One young woman's experience of dieting. Canada's Mental Health, 43(1), 14-19. A case study of a 17 year old girl elicit a woman's experience with weight reduction that highlight the contradictions and dilemmas inherent in developing body esteem during adolescence. Body image Adolescence Body esteem Davis, C., Brewer, H., & Weinstein, M. (1993). A study of appearance in young men. Social Behavior and Personality, 21(1), 63-74. A study of how and why men are becoming more concerned about matters of physical appearance and are reporting a greater degree of negative body image than in previous generations. The study uses a battery of psychological tests measuring appearance anxiety (AAX), situational trait anxiety, body esteem, and body dissatisfaction. The study indicates that AAX was used to predict self-reported distress during a body composition valuation. Physical appearance Body image Body esteem Delignieres, D., Marcellini, A., Brisswalter, J., & Legros, P. (1994). Self-perception of fitness and personality traits. Perceptual and Motor Skills, 78(3, Pt 1), 843-851. The study examined how middle-aged adults perceived their own physical fitness. Results indicated that self-appraisal of physical capacities was mainly influenced by a general attitude toward the physical self, and physical self-worth was related to self-esteem, anxiety, and masculinity. Personality traits Self-perception Physical fitness Body esteem Eldredge, K., Wilson, G. T., & Whaley, A. (1990). Failure, self evaluation, and feeling fat in women. International Journal of Eating Disorders, 9(1), 37-50. A study to test the hypothesis by R. Striegel-Moore et al. (1986) that women who feel fat have self-schemas in which body weight is a central component, and that any experience that gives rise to self-evaluation leads to evaluation of body and weight. Although the results fail to support the hypothesis, the subjects were indicated to describe their bodies in an evaluative manner. Self-evaluation Body image Body weight Adolescence Body esteem Endo, Y. (1992). Negative ideal self as a standard of self-esteem. Japanese Journal of Psychology, 63(3), 214-217. The study of how discrepancies between negative ideal self and real self are associated with self-esteem were conducted using 110 normal male and female Japanese undergraduates. Subjects were given a list of 50 positive and negative items in the domains of scholl, family, and other interpersonal areas, lifestyle, personality, and body image that were related to self-recognition. Self-concept Self-esteem Grubb, H. J., Sellers, M. I., & Waligroski, K. (1993). Factors related to depression and eating disorders: Self-esteem, body image, and attractiveness. Psychological Reports, 72(3, Pt 1), 1003-1010. The study examined whether women suffering from some form of eating disorder would experience lower self-esteem (SE) and higher depression (DP), and whether women with lower SE and greater DP would rate their attractiveness lower and see themselves as heavier than less depressed individuals. The study found that DP scores correlated significantly with rated body size, but not attractiveness. Meanwhile, SE scores were significantly correlated with rated attractiveness, but not body size. Self-esteem Body image Physical attractiveness Hill, A. J., & Bhatti, R. (1995). Body shape perception and dieting in preadolescent British Asian girls: Links with eating disorders. International Journal of Eating Disorders, 17(2), 175-183. The study investigated dietary restraint, body esteem, body satisfaction, and body figures of 55 Asian and 42 Caucasian girls in the UK. Results indicate that the wide appeal of thinness, which in combination with intercultural and intrafamilial conflict, may strongly influence eating and contribute the development of eating disorders. Appetite-disorders Body image Body weight Hodge, C. N., Jackson, L. A., & Sullivan, L. A. (1993). The freshmen 15: Facts and fantasies about weight gain in college women. Psychology of Women Quarterly, 17(1), 119-126. The study was designed to test the hypothesis that the "freshman 15," which refers to the belief that college students gain an average of 15 lbs during their 1st year of college. The study, that administered the test to 61 female college students, found that the majority remained the same weight during the 1st 6 month of college. Results also indicated that a favorable body image was related to weight loss among those who lost weight. Body weight Body image Self-esteem Self-monitoring personality Irving, L. M. (1990). Mirror images: Effects of the standard of beauty on the self and body-esteem of women exhibiting varying levels of bulimic symptoms. Journal of Social and Clinical Psychology, 9(2), 230-242. The study used a social comparison theory paradigm to examine the impact of exposure to slides of thin, average, and oversize models on the self-evaluations of 162 university women exhibiting various level of self-reported bulimic symptoms. The results indicate that subjects with high levels of bulimic symptoms were reported to have a greater amount of pressure to be thin from media, peers, and family. Pictorial stimuli Self-esteem Body image Body size Self-evaluation Jackson, L. A., Ervin, K. S., & Hodge, C. N. (1992). Narcissism and body image. Journal of Research in Personality, 26(4), 357-370. An analysis of relationship between narcissism, measured by Narcissistic Personality Inventory (NPI), and body image, measured by the Body-Self Relations Questionnaire in a nonclinical sample of 307 college students (105 males). Results indicate that more narcissistic individuals had more favorable body images and were higher in masculinity and self-esteem. No gender differences were observed in either the levels of narcissism or its body image correlates. Narcissism Body image self-esteem Kowner, R., & Ogawa, T. (1993). The contrast effect of physical attractiveness in Japan. Journal of Psychology, 127(1), 51-64. The study examined contextual effects on the judgment of others' attractiveness and self-evaluation among 213 female and 124 male Japanese college students who rated their body satisfaction and self-esteem following exposure to various attractiveness stimuli. Results showed the existence of a contrast effect of attractiveness stimuli on the judgment of target stimuli in men and women. A gender difference was evident in the contextual effect of physical attractiveness stimuli. Physical attractiveness Self-esteem Self-evaluation Body image Makkar, J. K., & Strube, M. J. (1995). Black women's self-perceptions of attractiveness following exposure to white versus black beauty standards: The moderating role of racial identity and self-esteem. Journal of Applied Social Psychology, 25(17), 1547-1566. The study examines racial identity, self-esteem, and Black vs White beauty standards as moderators of body image perceptions among 60 Black female undergraduates. Results suggest that explicit beauty standards engage a comparison process. Black respondents with high self-esteem or with high African self-consciousness results in self-evaluations that are significantly higher than the attractiveness attributed to White standard of beauty. Ethnic-identity Self-esteem Body image Physical-attractiveness McAllister, R., & Caltabiano, M. L. (1994). Self-esteem, body image, and weight in noneating-disordered women. Psychological Reports, 75(3, Pt1), 1339-1343. The study examined the self-esteem of 69 women attending weight-loss centers in relation to attitudes toward body and weight, actual weight, number of diets undergone, and weight fluctuations. The results indicate that there is no association between self-esteem and either eating restraint or significant others' attitudes. However, the study found that women with stable weight had the highest self-esteem, whereas women with diets were indicated to have low self-esteem. Self-esteem Body-image Body-weight Mendelson, B. K., White, D. R., & Mendelson, M. J. (1995). Children's global self-esteem predicted by body-esteem but not by weight. Perceptual and Motor Skills, 80(1), 97-98. The study of 243 girls and 168 boys who completed the Self-Perception Profile for Adolescents and the Body Esteem scale results in that subjects' self-esteem did not appear to be influenced either by their weight or by their feelings of their weight. The study found that those who had positive feelings about their appearance and high opinions about others' evaluations of their looks tended to have high self-esteem. Body weight self-esteem Adolescence Nagel, K. L., & Jones, K. H. (1992). Sociological factors in the development of eating disorders. Adolescence, 27(105), 107-113. An investigation of sociocultural, socioeconomic, and sex-related factors that contribute to the development of eating disorders. Results suggested that professionals in the educational and physical and mental health care fields need to help adolescents resist societal pressure to conform to unrealistic standards of appearance, and provide guidance on nutrition, realistic body ideals, and achievement of self-esteem, self-efficacy, interpersonal relations, and coping skills. Sociocultural factors Socioeconomic status Psychosocial factors Sex role stereotyping Eating disorders Body esteem Offman, H. J., & Bradley, S. J. (1992). Body image of children and adolescents and its measurement: An overview. Canadian Journal of Psychiatry, 37(6), 417-422. A study of the evolution of body image (BI) as multidimensional construct and the difficulties associated with the use of human figure drawing (HFD) to measure BI. The discussion topics include the HFD as a measure of self-esteem, multidimensional nature of adolescents' BIs, development of BI, and understanding of the development of illness. Body image Human figures drawing Adolescents Body esteem Page, R. M. (1992). Feelings of physical unattractiveness and hopelessness among high school students. High School Journal, 75(3), 150-155. A study to examine whether adolescents with poor perceptions of physical attractiveness were more likely to suffer from feelings of hopelessness (HLN) than were those who perceived themselves as attractive. The subjects consist of 630 females and 654 males in Grades 9-12. They were asked to complete the Beck Hopelessness Scale and items that assessed perceived physical attractiveness, satisfaction with body weight, perceived body fitness or thinness, and current height and weight. Physical attractiveness Body awareness Self-esteem Self-perception Rumpel, C., & Harris, T. B. (1994). The influence of weight on adolescent self-esteem. Journal of Psychosomatic Research, 38(6), 547-556. The study examined whether heavier children are more likely to have lower self-esteem (SE) and external locus of control (LOC) than normal weight children. Results suggest a lack of effect of weight on SE in the general population. The association between overweight and SE seen in clinical populations may reflect other psychological characteristics of overweight children followed in clinics. Self-esteem Internal-external locus of control Psychosocial-development Body weight Smith, L. R., Burlew, A. K., & Lundgren, D. C. (1991). Black consciousness, self-esteem, and satisfaction with physical appearance among African-American female college students. Journal of Black Studies, 22(2), 269-283. An investigation of the extent to which Black consciousness (BC) and self-esteem (SE) were associated with satisfaction and physical appearance (SPA) among 152 female African-American college students. No relationship was found between SE and satisfaction with facial features and BC. However, a strong correlation was found between SE and satisfaction with both facial and overall appearance. Ethnic identity Self-esteem Physical appearance Sonstroem, R. J., Harlow, L. L., & Josephs, L. (1994). Exercise and self-esteem: Validity of model expansion and exercise associations. Journal of Sport and Exercise Psychology, 16(1), 29-42. The research examined the validity of expanding the Exercise and Self-Esteem Model (EXSEM) developed by R.J. Sonstroem and W.P. Morgan in 216 female aerobic dancers. This research was designed to include 2 levels of perceived physical competence as operationalized by the Physical Self-Perception Profile (PSPP). A self- esteem scale was administered along with the PSPP to assess general physical self-worth, and more specific subdomains of perceived sport competence, physical condition, attractive body, and strength. Self-perception Physical fitness Self-esteem Self-efficacy Striegel-Moore, R. H., Tucker, N., & Hsu, J. (1990). Body image dissatisfaction and disordered eating in lesbian college students. International Journal of Eating Disorders, 9(5), 493-500. The study employed 30 lesbian and 52 heterosexual female undergraduates to complete the Body Esteem Scale and the Eating Disorder Inventory. The results indicated that lesbian had lower self-esteem, more ineffectiveness, more interpersonal distrust, and more difficulties in identifying their own emotions than did heterosexuals. Body image Appetite-disorders Lesbianism Body esteem Thomas, C. D., & Freeman, R. J. (1990). The body esteem scale: Construct validity of the female subscales. Journal of Personality Assessment, 54(1-2), 204-212. A study of 200 women from a university community who completed the Self Body Esteem Scale (BES), the Eating Disorder Inventory, the Self-Consciousness Scales, the Tennessee Self-Concept Scale, a figure rating task, a body size estimation procedure, and items concerning weight satisfaction and attractiveness. Body image Self-esteem Construct validity Body esteem Tiggemann, M. (1994). Gender differences in the interrelationships between weight dissatisfaction, restraint, and self-esteem. Sex Roles, 30(5-6), 319-330. The study investigated the interrelationship between weight, weight dissatisfaction, restraint, and self-esteem in 202 female and 130 male undergraduates in Australia. A tentative causal model proposed actual overweight to lead to body dissatisfaction, which causes the person to diet, with the resulting failures leading to loss of self-esteem. This model was confirmed by path analysis for women, but not for men. Self-esteem Self-perception Body weight Self-concept Waddell-Kral, L., & Thomas, C. D. (1990). Body attitudes and eating behaviors of female clothing sales personnel. Psychological Reports, 67(2), 451-456. A study to test a hypothesis that women, who worked in settings that emphasized physical appearance, would have more disturbed body attitudes and eating behaviors than college women. The study found that sales personnel, who perceived their appearances to be of greater importance in their work, more concern about dieting and weight, as reflected on the Drive for Thinness subscale of the EDI. The overall results indicate that women who work in fashion clothing sales do not appear to be at increased risk for disturbances in body attitudes or eating behavior. Body image Body attitudes Eating behaviors Body esteem Wilkins, J. A., Boland, F. J., & Albinson, J. (1991). A comparison of male and female university athletes and nonathletes on eating disorder indices: Are athletes protected. Journal of Sport Behavior, 14(2), 129-143. A study, that compared undergraduate athletes and nonathletes on measures of eating disorder, self-esteem, body image, and depression, found that athletes, who relied less on dieting behaviors for weight control, were likely to perceive themselves as overweight, possessed higher self-esteem, and reported greater confidence in the way in which their bodies perform. Self-esteem Body image appetite-disorders